All Animals Are Equal By Peter Singer - 1915 Words

If a farmer breeds cows, treats them as well as possible, and then kills them as painlessly as possible at age three for food, utilitarians and sentientist Kantians alike would believe this is morally justifiable. Utilitarians believe that humans should do what maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain, so while the cows may have an immediate interest in avoiding suffering, they have lived a happy life and have no concept of death, so painlessly killing and eating them would not be morally wrong. Sentientist Kantians would also believe that there is nothing wrong with killing the cows for food because Kantians believe that, given that there was no cruelty involved with raising and killing the cows, the cows are merely a means to an end. In†¦show more content†¦However, if the animals were treated well and were killed painlessly, that would not be morally wrong because, in this case, eating meat is only wrong when the animals are not treated as well as they could be. Singer believes that every sentient being should receive equal consideration, but he is aware that humans and non-human animals do not deserve the same rights because different beings have different interests (Singer 149). An example Singer gives is that it would not be wrong to deny dogs the right to vote because dogs are incapable of understanding the significance of voting, so they cannot have the right to vote, but it would be wrong to deny a dog’s interest in not suffering since dogs have a strong interest in avoiding pain (Singer 149). The utilitarian position only objects to suffering, not to killing, so Singer argues that the moral permissiveness of killing the cows depends on whether or not the cows have an interest in continuing to exist in the future. Since cows are non-self-conscious and do not have an interest in continuing to exist into the future, painlessly killing them would not be morally wrong. In order for a being to have an interest in continuing to exist in the future, it must first be able to conceive of itself as existing into the future, which requires the being to be self-conscious, according to Michael Tooley in â€Å"Are Nonhuman Animals Persons?† (358). Non-self-conscious beings are not harmed by their deathsShow MoreRelatedAll Animals Are Equal By Peter Singer1487 Words   |  6 PagesIn Peter Singer’s piece â€Å"All Animals Are Equal†, he begins his argument by an in-depth consideration of notable rights movements, such as the Black Liberation and women’s right s movement, then segues into the justification for equal consideration of rights regarding animals, before finally exposing the immorality behind factory farming and animal cruelty. According to Singer, â€Å"the basic principle of equality†¦is equality of consideration; and equal consideration for different beings may lead to differentRead MoreThe Rhetorical Analysis Of Peter Singer, All Animals Are Equal977 Words   |  4 PagesSinger, All Animals are Equal In order to understand Peter Singers article All Animals Are Equal, one has to look at his viewpoint and perspective. Singer is a utilitarian, which is someone who believes that best outcome is something that causes that greatest amount of pleasure (or the least amount of pain) for the greatest number of people. However, in this definition the word people is used, as to mean only humans. This is the point that Singer is trying to argue. Who is to say that animalsRead MoreCompare Tom Regan, Carl Cohen and Peter Singer in Terms of Animal Rights813 Words   |  4 PagesSynthesis Tom Regan, Carl Cohen, Peter Singer Animal rights are one of the most controversial issues today. There has been endless debate about whether or not animals have rights. Philosophers attempt to come up with the moral conclusions by taking in account the many different standpoints and presenting their related arguments. In his essay â€Å"The case of animal rights†, Tom Regan, a professor of philosophy at North Carolina State University, defends his view that the center of our moral concernRead MoreThe Origin Of Speciesism By Peter Singer1025 Words   |  5 PagesThe Origin of Speciesism] Singer draws parallels between specicism and racism through comparing the grounds on which whose interests and suffering takes precedence. Singer believes that discarding the moral status of animal concerns in their exploitation as they are not of our species and therefore insignificant, mimics that of the prejudice of white slave owners against discarding the moral status of the interests and suffering of their African Slaves [Peter Singer Practical Ethics, 2nd edition]Read MoreEssay on ANIMAL RIGHTS790 Words   |  4 PagesAnimals have their own rights as do to humans and we should respect that and give them the same respect we give each other. Animals deserve to be given those same basic rights as humans. All humans are considered equal and ethical principles and legal statutes should protect the rights of animals to live according to their own nature and remain free from exploitation. This paper is going to argue that animals deserve to have the same rights as humans and therefore, we don’t have the right to killRead MoreEqually Consider This1419 Words   |  6 PagesIn Peter Singer’s All Animals are Equal, he presents an argument for equal consideration for members of nonhuman species, otherwise known as animals. In this paper, I will argue that Singer’s argument does not prove that animals are deserving of equal consideration because it contains a premise that is not obviously true. The premise I believe to be inadequately supported is the premise that there is no property that all human sentient creatures have that not all sentient creatures have that wouldRead MoreArgument Against Animal Experimentation : Peter Singer And Tom Regan1035 Words   |  5 PagesExperimentation on animals has been a controversial issue for hundreds of years and is still a major issue today. However, we have continued to experiment on animals to test the effects of products such as makeup. Both Peter Singer and Tom Regan would have strong opinions against this experimentation, but they would also have different ways of expressing their view on the topic. They have expressed that animals should be considered to a certain extent that humans and other animals should be treatedRead MoreThe Canadian Inuit And Animals For Supplies1038 Words   |  5 Pages For many of years animal activists have been trying to put a stop to all animal hunting, abuse, using animals for supplies. The problem with doing this is that it may effect a large amount of people who live off of these animals, in particularly the seal. The Canadian Inuit is a large group of people about 46,000 people as an estimation, that use seals as a multi source. The Canadian Inuit use the seal for a source of cash through fur sales, they used the seal for meat, and once used seal forRead MoreEthical Issue Of Animal Testing For Medical Research961 Words   |  4 Pageshe ethical issue of animal testing for medical testing is not new, for example the majority of the common vaccines were developed because medical research that utilized animal testing. Many philosophers have attempted to explain the rights of animals and some wrote on the lack of inherent rights. This issue is difficult because animals can’t speak for themselves but humans do have a place to play in th e fight for animal rights. I will apply the principle of utility along with the moral theories ofRead MoreEqual Rights for Animals in Peter Singer’s Article, All Animals are Equal652 Words   |  3 Pages In Peter Singer’s article, All Animals are Equal, Singer claims that animals deserve the same equal rights and respect that the human lives get. His strongest argument is defined by all animals, human or non-human shall be defined as equal. Singer makes some very strong arguments within his article, but I feel some of his statements are humanist. As an animal lover and mother to two pets, I disagree that not all animals or living things endure the same amount. However, I do agree that animals

No Secret That The Organ Transplantation - 917 Words

Every year many people of all ages, have to be put on a donor list to get a replacement of a diagnosed organ that must be replaced to live. It is no secret that the organ transplantation list has a significant amount of people and every day a handful of them die. A average of twenty one people die everyday, according to the American Transplant Foundation. Many scientist and medically certified personals have been trying to come up with alternative genetic modified organs to give to needed patients, instead of waiting for a donor to come up. A alternate solution they have experimented with is xenotransplantation, the procedure that takes animal cells, organs, tissues, etc†¦, and replaces with what the donor needs, instead of having a human donor. The procedure has been experimented on for many years since the first transplantation between humans was successful. Nevertheless, xenotransplantation should not be considered because of the physiological beliefs, disease transmission, a nd of animal cruelty. We should not consider xenotransplantation because of the physiological beliefs. Since birth, we were taught our wrongs and rights and we were taught about socially acceptable activities. Animals were always a symbol of happiness and hope, and many of us treat them as human beings. Hurting animals was always one of the wrong things to do. Not only do many people go against harming animals but a percentage of the world become vegetarian for the reason that they care about themShow MoreRelatedChinese People And Government Participates In Organ Trafficking.1150 Words   |  5 Pagesand government participates in organ trafficking. The people cannot admit to doing such a thing as it violates the Temporary Rules Concern in the Utilization of Corpses or Organs from the Corpses of Executed Prisoners Act, which was enacted in 1984. The act states that â€Å"the use of organs of executed criminals must be kept strictly secret, and attention must be paid to avoid nega tive repercussions.† (Glaser 20) The fight against The Declaration of Istanbul on Organ Trafficking and Transplant TourismRead MoreThe Death Of A Transplant Organ Transplant Essay1722 Words   |  7 PagesStates are on the waiting list to receive a lifesaving organ transplant. Every 10 minutes a new name is added to the transplant waiting list and on average around 20 people die per day due to a lack of organ availability. The consistent high demand for organs and the shortage of donors in the United States has prompted a complex discussion on ways to close the gap. China, for example, has found a solution. They use death-row inmate’s organs for transplant operations. A report from an internationalRead MoreThe Key to Solving The American Organ Allocation Essay1665 Words   |  7 Pageslungs came available in time. Organ allocation in the United States of America has become a heavily debated subject in the medical field as well as the political and ethical fields. There is no doubt that there is a shortage of organs in the U nited States. In order to increase organ supply the American Department of Health should integrate the effective allocation policies of some European countries such as Spain and Austria. These policies include: who receives organs, an opt-out program, and de-regionalizedRead MoreJohn Q: an Ethical Analys and Review3010 Words   |  13 Pagesdemonstration of ethical principles of distributive justice as they pertain to healthcare and, more specifically, organ allocation in the face of scarcity. The film portrays the shortcomings of a managed care system as well as the pitfalls of a libertarian approach to allocation. Here discussed are the ethical approaches of Eglitarianism, Prioritarianisn, Utilitarianism, and Libertarianism to organ allocation as they pertain to the film as well as the situational change in the plot if these approaches wereRead MoreConcerns About Organ Donation Essay1968 Words   |  8 PagesOrgan Donation Get him into the O.R. stat! After applying yourself to be a recipient for a donation, you will be added to the waiting list for that organ. This can take months, if not years. Receiving an organ can be sudden whenever an organ match has been found for you. We should reevaluate organ donation due to someone’s personal religion, inability to benefit the poor, numerous hospital visits, and potential endangerment to their own well being. Therefore, in 2009, organ transplants becameRead MoreOrgan Donation2096 Words   |  9 Pagesadded to the waiting list for that organ. This can take months, if not years. Receiving an organ can be sudden whenever an organ match has been found for you. We should reevaluate organ donation due to someone’s personal religion, inability to benefit the poor, numerous hospital visits, and potential endangerment to their own well being. Therefore, in 2009, organ transplants became a demand everywhere so abruptly that countless nationalities began selling their organs in return for money (HRSA 1). Eighty-oneRead MoreOrgan Trafficking Is The Illegal Trade Of Human Organs For Transplantation1198 Words   |  5 PagesOrgan Trafficking, also known as transplant tourism is the illegal trade of human organs for transplantation. (UNOFC,2016). On the other hand, organ donation is the act of transplanting healthy organs and tissues from one person to another (Medline Plus,2015). It is no secret that organ supply cannot meet the rising demand, and because of that a global organ transplant black market has grown and flourished(Glaser,2005). Although there has been some effort to establish a global organ transplant resolutionRead MoreFinancial Rewards For Living Organ Donors2012 Words   |  9 Pages Financial Rewards for Living Organ Donors Deciding whether or not one would like to become an organ donor should be a relatively simple decision. But becoming a living organ donor, for someone who may need a kidney or liver, is something that is not always possible to those who do want to help. Unfortunately many people incur costs for the life-saving donation. Regardless of the fact that many other types of donors get paid for their donations. Here lies the frustration of many who are waitingRead MoreDouble-Edged Sword1678 Words   |  7 Pagescontinual scientific and technological progress, which is brought about by the vast reservoir of knowledge that humankind has gained over the centuries in countless attempts to quench their insatiable thirst for the ultimate key that will unlock all the secrets of life. In the last few decades, men and women of science who are determined to fully unveil the mysteries of the universe were already able to take evolution to a whole new level—one that is closer to its culmination . They were able to discoverRead MoreCulture Expansion Of Mesenchymal Stem Cells1572 Words   |  7 Pagesaimed to develop culture expansion of undifferentiated human mesenchymal stem cells for potential use as autologous cell source for women for gynaecological disorders especially using small molecules, especially A83-01 (ALK 4/5/7 inhibitor). MSCs secret cytokines that act via paracrine effect to exert anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Identification of MSCs in almost all postnatal tissues (bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical blood, menstrual blood, placenta and pre-/post-menopausal

Master of Mental Health Nursing

Question: Discuss about theMaster of Mental Health Nursing. Answer: Introduction: In this essay, clinical condition of patient Mr.A. is discussed. Mr. A is suffering through dementia and his behavior is erratic. In describing this event Driscolls reflective cycle is applied. In comprises of what?, so what? and now what? (O'Carroll, 2007). What section mainly comprises of description of the scenario. So what section comprises of analysis of the scenario and now what section comprises of reaction to the scenario. What? (Scenario): This is case of a patient Mr. (70 yrs.). He was admitted to the hospital one week before with problem of dementia and erratic behavior with family members and friends. I am residential nurse (RN) in the emergency ward. I reached on the ward at about 8.00 a.m. and I typically start my day with assisting the patients with their morning session daily activities. While assisting in daily undertakings, one of the patients, I came across was Mr. A. I was asking Mr. A about his toilet use and whether he requires help. He became angry on me, started shouting at me and my colleague and moreover trying to hurt physically to me. He was wishing to meet his son. He was arguing that, hospital people are keeping him away from his son. However we know that his son died 2 years ago in a train accident. It has been well established that people with dementia has good memory of the past (Jacques Jackson 2000). Even though in the current situation it is not a reality, they feel or realize past facts and demand for past fact. Even though it was uneasy situation for me, I kept cool and tried to convince him and made him realize that his wish is not reality now. I was fortunate that situation got resolved and Mr. A became calm and he was ready to take assistance for toilet use. So What (Response): I had diversified feelings at the time of that incidence and I was confused about my words. Whether I said whatsoever wrong to him. I felt awkward at that time and was upset with myself. Because, I was feeling, I troubled a stable patient and due to me only, he became disturbed. I also felt that other patients in the ward got troubled due to this incidence and other patients thought I did something wrong with Mr.A. At the same I became sad because, I forced Mr. A to recollections of his expired son. Even though, I was frightened in that condition, I kept myself calm and handled situation to make him calm. However, I managed this condition on my own. Now my feeling is very pleased and I feel happy that I did good job to handle the situation. I also got the confidence that I can handle such situations in the future also. My feelings are completely different from the feelings at the time of incidence. At the time of incidence, I was afraid and confused, but now I am confident and satisfied. Overall effect of my action was positive. I understand that Mr. A has dementia problem so that I can take care of him in that direction. Also, Mr. A went to toilet and completed his routine daily activities. This is important in nursing practice to complete patients daily activities in smooth and comfortable manner (Baillie, 2005). This helps in making patient stable. Positive outcome of the incidence is that, I followed ethical and professional practices in the adverse conditions. This is very important in nursing practice to follow these practices in adverse conditions (Grace, 2013). Negative impact of this incidence on me is that I got abused from the patient, for whom I was taking so much care for his well-being. For me this situation was very good learning and it gave me opportunity to evaluate my behavior in difficult situations. I realized that these practices, I cant learn from classrooms or textbooks. Experience and handling real time case like Mr. A case can teach to handle such situations. I realized that my effective communication, holistic approach for patient care and positive attitude towards patients condition, helped me to handle this incident to produce positive outcome form this incident (Thresyamma, 2005). Even tough, I was handling this condition independently for the first time, I learned and grasped skills and aptitude to handle such situations from my mentor. I observed him handling such situations in couple of instances. Few people may have different feeling as compared to me in that situation. I handled that situation in more democratic way. I understood his state of mind and took him in confidenc e and made him calm. However, few people may have different view and approach on this situation. They might handle this condition in more autocratic manner and giving only orders to complete the daily activities. This type of approach might have led to negative consequence and Mr. A might got more irritated and that might be trouble for all the people in the ward. I felt troubled in facing Mr. A next time because, he may not like my assistance because he had bad experience with me. However, due to his dementia, he forgot that incidence and that gave me moral boost to provide nursing practice to him. It is evident that patients having dementia can have such behavior in few instances. In such instances, these patients become more agitated and emotionally disturbed. In reality, these patients dont wish to harm or hurt anybody physically, emotionally and psychotically (Adams and Gardiner, 2005). However, this occurs due to lack of control on themselves. Being a nurse, I know this fact and knowledge of this fact helped me take quick decisions about Mr. A and this make sense to respond to his aggressive reactive reaction. Structural, policy and legal context: Ethics and professional practice in nursing mentioned about not to unrestrained patient (Roberts and Dyer, 2004). According to the hospital policy, there is no separate arrangement or ward for such mentally ill patients. Even though such patients proved troublesome for hospital staff and other patient, such patients should be admitted along with the other patients. Moreover, there is no special staff for the management of such patients. Due to the lack of specialized human resources for such patients there is the hindrance of managing such patient as a special case. Hence, I cant refer Mr. A to other staff members of the hospital and took responsibility to manage the condition of Mr. A. At the same time, our hospital is bound to take care of every patient, provided it is manageable with existing staff and infrastructure of the hospital. Management of the hospital made this policy and it is commitment of every staff member of the hospital to follo w these hospital policies. Also, there is the flexibility in the policy of the hospital to amend the policy according to the requirement of the case and situation (Goel, 2010). One of the feasibility of policy amendment, applicable in this scenario is to invite for the consultant or specialized healthcare professional related to mental illness. Inclusion of the expertise in the mental illness by experience is central to the healthcare management for enriching nursing service, in decision making and evaluation of the outcome (Peters, 2016). Colleagues response: My colleagues also responded positively to this scenario. In handling this situation other nurse and ward boy helped me. It has been well established that recovery or management of the health conditions can be enhanced and carried out by sharing experiences of different stakeholders in the healthcare management and partnerships among the colleagues (Corrigan et al., 2005). They tried to convince Mr. A, that nursing staff is for the welfare of the patients including you. He should believe and keep faith on the nursing staff, if he wants to recover from this condition. Recovery-focused response: In the case of Mr. A, recovery means coming out of the erratic behavior, calm down and believe on others because he is not remembering many things due to his dementia. Recovery in the mental patients is of two types. It comprises of firstly, internal individual process and secondly, repetitive association between patients experience and social conditions (Anthony, 2000; May, 2000). In case of Mr. A, internal individual process of recovery is very less. However second type recovery where patient experience and social conditions in the form of me and my colleagues positive attitude towards recovery of Mr. A helped his recovery from this condition. Nursing staff should be optimistic about the recovery of the mental illness of the patient. This optimism of the nursing staff augments hope and confidence of the nursing staff for the recovery of the patient and also works positively towards the recovery of the patient (Roberts Wolfson, 2004; Repper and Perkins, 2 003). They helped me in assisting him physically to take to the toilet and two other senior members in the ward to calm down him. Now What: I learned that effective communication with the dementia patients is very important because these patients forget very easily and they are unaware of actual reality. If I would not have done anything for Mr. A, he might have got more irritated and his daily activities might have got disturbed and this might led to more psychological and biological problems in Mr. A. I could have prevented this incidence from happening. How the outcomes could have been improved? : It is evident that patients are more cooperative and understands more, if they are provided with person centered care. In this person centered care, there is good reputation between patients and nurses (Colomer and de Vries, 2016). It is well established that communication with dementia patient is very difficult task for nurse. However, person centered care would help to have good communication among them and it helps to avoid such aggressive behavior of the patient. Person centered care in mentally ill patients, required to be handled considering the history and life story of the patient. In person centered approach patients social, psychological, physical, cultural, sexual and spiritual aspects should be considered and provide intervention such that patients self-government and self-determination should not be affected (Brooker, 2003). Next time, I will focus on person centered care in such patients. This incident also facilitated me to recognize gaps in my mental and psychological knowledge and certainly I will look into it and bridge this gap by gaining more knowledge and experience (Jensen and Inker, 2015). So that, I can handle such circumstances more efficiently. For cultivating this knowledge I should discuss with my seniors about their experiences. After attainment of positive outcome in this case, I got more confidence and moral boost in my nursing practice. As a result, in future I will take more challenges in clinical setting and handle these cases effectively by implementing my knowledge, skills, techniques and experience. Conclusion: In this essay, an emergency patient with dementia and erratic behavior is mentioned and my reflection on the scenario in terms of its effect on me, response and efforts form the colleagues in the management of the patient and cooperation from other patients is discussed. In the discussion on the reflection in this case different aspect of the hospital like structure, human resources, and policies are considered. In the recovery of the patient both the patient related and social aspects are considered. Even tough, I handled this case effectively, it could have been managed more effectively with the implementation of person centered approach for Mr. A. References: Adams, T., Gardiner, P. (2005). Communication and interaction within dementia care triadsDeveloping a theory for relationship-centred care. Dementia, 4(2), 185-205. Anthony, W.A. (2000). A recovery-oriented service system: Setting some system standards. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 24(2), 159-168. Baillie, L. (2005). Developing Practical Nursing Skills. London: Hodder Arnold. Brooker, D. (2003). What is person-centred care in dementia?. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 13(3), 215-222. Colomer, J., de Vries, J. (2016). Person-centred dementia care: a reality check in two nursing homes in Ireland. Dementia, 15(5), 1158-1170. Corrigan, P., Slopen, N., Gracia, G., Phelan, S., Keogh, C., Keck, L. (2005). Some recovery processes in mutual-help groups for persons with mental illness; 11: Qualitative analysis of participant interviews. Community Mental Health Journal, 14(6), 721-735. Goel, S. L. (2010). Health Care System and Hospital Administration: Health policy and programmes. Deep and Deep Publications. Grace, P.J. (2013). Nursing Ethics and Professional Responsibility in Advanced Practice. (2nd ed.). Jones Bartlett Learning. Jensen, C.J., Inker, J. (2015). Strengthening the Dementia Care Triad Identifying Knowledge Gaps and Linking to Resources. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 30(3), 268-275. Jacques, A., and Jackson, G. (2000). Understanding Dementia. London. Churchill Livingstone. May, R. (2000). Routes to recovery from psychosis: The roots of a clinical psychologist.Clinical Psychology Forum, 146, 6-10. O'Carroll, M., Robert, A., Park, J. (2007). Essential Mental Health Nursing Skills. Elsevier Health Sciences. Peters, M. (2016). BMA Complete Home Medical Guide: The Essential Reference for Every Family. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. Repper, J. Perkins, R. (2003) Social Inclusion and Recovery A Model for Mental Health Practice. Balliere Tindall, Edinburgh, London. Roberts, G. Wolfson P. (2004). The rediscovery of recovery: open to all. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 10, 37-49. Roberts, T. G., Dyer, J. E. (2004). Student teacher perceptions of the characteristics of effective cooperating teachers: A delphi study. Proceedings of the 2004 Southern Agricultural Education Research Conference, 180-192. Thresyamma, C.P. (2005). Fundamentals of Nursing. Procedure Manual for General Nursing and Midwifery Course. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt Ltd.

Role of Data Privacy in Marketing - Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Role of Data Privacy in Marketing. Answer: Introduction: On May 31 2017 around 2 a.m. PST, it was reported that there has been a data breach and the data had been compromised in OneLogin, which is an online service that enables users to login to different websites and apps from single platform. It has headquarters in San Francisco, which provides single identity management and single sign-on for the application, which are based on cloud storage ("OneLogin breached, hacker finds cleartext credential notepads", 2017). It has more than 2000 customer companies in around 44 countries in the globe with more than 300 app vendors and even more than 70 SaaS (Software as a Service) providers that is becoming trend for all new companies and the companies, which wants travel with the technology development. As it provides a single platform for accessing different applications, OneLogin had to save all the credential information related to their identity and the credentials that is needed to access any application ("OneLogin breached, hacker finds cleartext credential notepads", 2017). The intruders or the hackers that hacked the OneLogin server were able to decrypt the encrypted files in which customers very personal credentials and information were saved in those encrypted files. This led the expose of such crucial information which can lead to serious damaging to the customer, which may include the bank account details generally, internet banking. This breach was also given a name, business-existential threat. A personal message was sent to the customers regarding the breach Customer data was compromised, including the ability to decrypt encrypted data including steps that can be taken to ensure that this breach does not affect for later. However, the problem was that the crucial and very personal information were stolen and might be used by the intruders to make intrusion in the other applications. By this intrusion, they were able to manipulate and access those data and information, as the needed credentials were all pre-available to them after the breach. In this case hackers were introduced by threat actors, who have gain access to the database in which information about the apps, users and many other crucial information were being saved including the credentials that will give access to those application ("OneLogin breached, hacker finds cleartext credential notepads", 2017). All the customers among those 2000 companies were affected by this intrusion and thousands of personal account in those companies had to suffer by this data breach. OneLogin was useful application for accessing many application using one credential and single platform but at the cost of the security and privacy (Martin, Borah Palmatier, 2017). Obviously, the information and data that were being saved was for the organizational purpose only and certain specific details of the organization related to the business and transactions made with the contractors and the business partners. This threat caused risks to all the information that were being saved on the cloud using SaaS application. Certain individuals were also affected by this intrusion as many individuals used OneLogin for their personal benefits (Martin Murphy, 2017). This attack was done on the single database but has affected globally to the threats and risks of privacy and security of the organization or the individuals wh o were using OneLogin application. How the attack was carried out? Chief information security officer of OneLogin, Alvaro Hoyos, said that an unknown intruder was able to gain unauthorized access to the server of the OneLogin that was running on the United States database. This attack was started by the attempts made by the intruder to obtain set of AWS keys and used them to get access to AWS API application programming interface through another service provider other than OneLogins server (Spillner, 2017). APIs is a technical term or language for the conversation between the applications to exchange information and APIs allows developer to collect pre-written components of the software, thus both of them need to work together. The hackers get access to this server and found coding to decrypt those data, which were encrypted before for the security of those data. The hackers got access to the database table using these codes, which contains information and data about the users, applications and various other types of keys. Then they use other coding to decode the encrypted files and decrypted many files that were saved on the database. Measure that could have taken by the organization to avoid this breach is that OneLogin service provider should have introduced third party for the external security of the company to make sure that it has adequately mopped up with any of the certain data breach. All the log management system should be restricted to the SAML-based authentication. Password should be set auto reset mode based on auto generation of password (Hossain, Hasan Skjellum, 2017). This was being implemented after the breach already happened, whereas OneLogin should have learnt from the previous attack and should have implemented it before the second intrusion happened. Measures that individual or organization should be taken to keep them safe can be listed as: Monitoring leaked credentials of the customers before and after the breach (Cheng, Liu Yao, 2017). Implementation of multi-factor authentication that does not leverage SMS Deployment of an inline Web Application Firewall Monitoring leaked credentials of the employees working in the organization Monitoring whether the name of the brand and company names are mentioned or not in the crack forums (Hutching Holt, 2017). Gaining awareness about the credential stuffing tools to ensure that none of the data into wrong hands. WannaCry Ransomware Cyber Attack Ransomware cyber-attack was one of the biggest data breaches of this century that causes damages to several computers at global level. Ransomware cyber-attack affected more than 230,000 computers around the, world in between 12th may and 15th may (Collier, 2017). The intruders were asking money in the form of Bit Coin Currency in exchange of the anti-virus, which will decrypt the encrypted files as mentioned in the next paragraph, and thus it was named as WannaCry Ransomware attack (Martin, Krinoss Hankin, 2017). It is being expected that the Ransomware cyber-attack be originated from London when a European accessed a zip file, which activated the malicious virus and spread across other systems by using network as a bridge. There were mainly two software that were used to make this incident happen, one which gave them access to the storage files saved in the system, which was stolen from the U.S. agency and another which was originated by the intruders to encrypt the files. Technically, the virus encrypts all the files so that a user will not be able to open any file without the decryption code or any anti-virus, which can only be proposed by the hackers. Experts in IT found a way to slow down the wrath of this attack but after that, regular updates were started uploading to the systems, which results in wastage of time only by the attempts made by researchers. Virus was attacking the systems based on operating systems like Windows 7, window XP, Server 2003, and Windows 8 (Mohurle Patil, 2017). It was reported that the virus was not much effective on the systems that were being operated at server 2003 or Windows XP, which means hackers were targeting the latest operating systems. It was also noted that this virus mostly affects the software that were being installed from black market. This conclusion was drawn from the measurement of the damage done to the Chinese countries, as almost 70 % of the systems in China are running on the software that are from black market. This was a worldwide cyber-attack, which damages several organization including government federals to various multinational companies. Some of the organization with advanced IT were able to decrypt the files that were encrypted by them and few were saved by using common senses like turning systems offline for further access by the virus but several were affected by this attack (Renaud, 2017). Government, Hospitals, and multinational companies, of Russia, Japan, China, U.S. and several other countries were affected by this wide spread cyber-attack. Multi-national automobile companies like Nissan and Renault had to suffer damages in the production due to this data breach. This virus made several police stations of China and India to shut down their systems and put the station offline in manner to stop the spreading of the virus among different systems. Big Electronic companies and Multinational Courier Companies like Fed Ex and Hitachi reported the intrusion of this attack. Several ho spitals in UK and U.S. reported the same malware affected their systems which results in delay of several operations and surgeries. Nissan was on the list of least affected automobile companies as an individual with common sense put their all systems offline when attack was seems to affecting one system and save the rest of the systems from being corrupted by the malicious virus. This virus affected many areas in Russia and India (Gandhi, 2017). How was the attack carried out? IT researchers and the developers explained that attack was initiated at London on 12th may 2017; virus was injected into the host computer, which is activated after when a European opened a zip file. Many commands were executed automatically after the activation of that virus which was programmed by the hackers. Some commands were being executed in order to deviate the researchers and the experienced IT. After certain hours, it was found that the virus is executing command to system to connect to an unknown server, which does not exist at all. The main intention behind this execution of this code was to distract the researchers for gathering much time to corrupt the files saved in the storage of the system. The encryption was very tough that no one would be able to decrypt the files without any anti-virus or decryption coding (Gandhi Krunal, 2017). Access to the files stored in the storage of the system was gained by using the stolen software, which was in real produced by the U.S. Agency. This software was named EthernalBlue, which was used to push the virus to the storage drive of the system. The hacker named the anti-virus as DoublePulsar and they were offering this anti-virus in exchange of the money in the form of Bit Coin Currency. The preventive measures that could have prevented this ransomware attack can be listed as: First of all the EthernalBlue software should not have gone viral and exposed on the internet, which gave access to the hackers to the storage system of various users. If the files were encrypted and tokenized earlier this breach would not harm those files and data. Original operating system would have provided security patches for the systems (Mattei, 2017). Microsoft should have predetermined about such attack and should have launched the patches much earlier. Anti-malware software was also the option, which will have not allowed the third party to access the storage of the system. References Cheng, L., Liu, F., Yao, D. D. (2017). Enterprise data breach: causes, challenges, prevention, and future directions.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery,7(5). Collier, R. (2017). NHS ransomware attack spreads worldwide. Gandhi Krunal, A. Year of Publication: 2017. Gandhi, K. A. (2017). Survey on Ransomware: A New Era of Cyber Attack.International Journal of Computer Applications,168(3). Hossain, M., Hasan, R., Skjellum, A. (2017, June). Securing the Internet of Things: A Meta-Study of Challenges, Approaches, and Open Problems. InDistributed Computing Systems Workshops (ICDCSW), 2017 IEEE 37th International Conference on(pp. 220-225). IEEE. Hutchings, A., Holt, T. J. (2017). The online stolen data market: disruption and intervention approaches.Global Crime,18(1), 11-30. Martin, G., Kinross, J., Hankin, C. (2017). Effective cybersecurity is fundamental to patient safety. Martin, K. D., Murphy, P. E. (2017). The role of data privacy in marketing.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,45(2), 135-155. Martin, K. D., Borah, A., Palmatier, R. W. (2017). Data privacy: Effects on customer and firm performance.Journal of Marketing,81(1), 36-58. Mattei, T. A. (2017). Privacy, Confidentiality, and Security of Health Care Information: Lessons from the Recent WannaCry Cyberattack.World Neurosurgery,104, 972-974. Mohurle, S., Patil, M. (2017). A brief study of Wannacry Threat: Ransomware Attack 2017.International Journal,8(5). OneLogin (2017). Retrieved 23 August 2017, from https://oag.ca.gov/system/files/Sample%20Notice_9.pdf Renaud, K. (2017). It makes you Wanna Cry. Spillner, J. (2017). Exploiting the Cloud Control Plane for Fun and Profit.arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.05945.

Rationing Healthcare Essay Example

Rationing Healthcare Essay Rationing Healthcare: Americas Best Bet John Curry Keller Graduate School Health Rights/Responsibilities HSM 542 Prof. Michelle Gomillion February 24, 2013 Abstract Rationing Healthcare: Americas Best Bet Introduction. Within the last decade private insurance premiums have doubled, rising four times faster than wages. Insolvency of the current government assisted healthcare programs, Medicare and Medicaid, are on track to occur within the next eight years (Singer, 2009, para. 3). Facts such as these lead most experts and scholars such as Peter Singer, bioethics professor at Princeton University, to believe rationing of healthcare is not only necessary but highly desired for all stakeholders involved. The fact of the matter is that healthcare is a scarce resource, and like all scarce resources, it requires close management and rationing to ensure its best use. At present, healthcare in a sense, is rationed through price. In the realm of public opinion however, rationing healthcare is often times connected to the highly politicized word, ‘socialism’ and is highly undesired. In its truest form however, rationing simply put, is a way of distributing limited resources to garner the best overall â€Å"bang for the buck. † In healthcare, rationing is a manner of which providing the best quality of care to the largest number of patients. Investopedia defines rationing as: The artificial restriction of raw materials, goods or services. Rationing commonly occurs when governments fear a shortage and want to make sure people have access to necessities, such as after a natural disaster or during a war. We will write a custom essay sample on Rationing Healthcare specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Rationing Healthcare specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Rationing Healthcare specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Governments can also impose rationing in the face of failed policies such as central planning, or may be forced to use rationing as a result of shortages (Definition of ’Rationing’, 2013, p. 1). This paper’s purpose is to examine the rationale behind the rationing of healthcare. It will examine the affect it has on healthcare delivery, impact on healthcare providers and consumers, possible solutions, and the role healthcare administrators/managers play in the process. The paper will reference institutions such as the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) and other national healthcare systems like Great Britain, Australia, and Canada. In addition, a definition of quality-adjusted life-year will be presented and debated as a possible option to ration care fair and proportionately. Affect Rationing Has on Healthcare Delivery. Challenger’s arguement. Sally C. Pipes, Chief Executive officer of Pacific Research Institute and adversary to the rationing of healthcare, wrote an article titled â€Å"Obama Will Ration Your Healthcare. Within the article, many subjects are discussed, including the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), a rationing system that controls government costs. It is Pipes’ belief that rationing healthcare will result in the elderly population being discriminated against due to cost benefit analysis. Her article goes on further to state, â€Å"the process of determining whi ch drugs and which treatments would be approved for use would be quickly politicized† (Pipes, 2008, para. 9). There is strong argument that rationing healthcare would ultimately fail in the hands of public opinion. To make this point, Pipes references lessons learned in managed care during the 1990’s. The goal of cost containment was successful however rejected by US citizens resulting in Congress passing a patient’s Bill of Rights (Pipes, 2008, para. 8). Other advocates against healthcare rationing state similar responses to Sally Pipes. Claire Andre and Manuel Velasquez, members of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, go as far as quoting Euripedes, 500 B. C. I hate the men who would prolong their lives by foods and drinks and charms of magic art perverting natures course to keep off death. They ought, when they no longer serve the land to quit this life, and clear the way for youth. It is their firm belief that through rationing, healthcare would result in the elderly and disabled populations being limited in their care because of a measure called a quality-adjusted life- year (QALY). QALY is a unit designed to enable a comparison of the benefits achieved by different forms of health care (Singer, 2009, para. 22). Andre and Velasquez state the morals of such rationing would be unjust and take away constitutional rights to receive equal care. Proponent’s arguement. Many proponents for rationing healthcare resources feel it is only a matter of time before it becomes necessary. Healthcare analysts and providers predict a health care crisis because of: * Costs of Healthcare * Increased number of uninsured individuals * Unknown status of current healthcare system Factors that are affecting these conclusions consist of: * Expenses are rising faster than the cost of living. Medicare and Medicaid spending (which comprises 26 percent of the federal budget) is expanding faster than the economic growth rate * Individuals and their families continue to pay a significant amount out of pocket (Ukleja Center for Ethical Leadership, 2012, Slide 3) While these factors are compelling, the numbers representing US spending costs ultimately lend credence to the argument for healthcare rationing. In June of 2011, the National Coalition on Health Care reported healthcare spending reached 18. 2% of US Gross Domestic Product (GDP), up by 5. % from the prior year (The National Coalition on Health Care, 2011, p. 1). With a continued climb in spending, insolvency of the current healthcare system could occur as early as eight years. President Obama has plainly stated â€Å"that America’s health care system is broken† (Singer, 2009, para. 5). Proponents for the rationing of healthcare are in agreement with the President and see little to no alternative. While some feel rationing is the way to avoid bankrupting the healthcare system others believe the wrong form of rationing is already occurring in the form of ability to pay. Examples of such rationing comes in the form of pharmaceutical deductibles for life saving medication. If the individual is unable to afford the medication they go without. Professionals like Simon Rottenberg, Professor of Economics at the University of Massachusetts, and David J. Theroux, President and Chief Executive Officer of The Independent Institute and Publisher of The Independent Review, warn against this form of rationing and instead, believe it should be based on a measurement of life quality. They state: There is a strong emotional attraction for price controls as a way for the government to â€Å"do something. † However, well-intentioned motives are not enough—the results also count and whether the consequences from government action are beneficial to the public, especially the disadvantaged, or not (Rottenberg ; Theroux, 1994, p. 1). Examples of where well-intentioned government motives failed in their attempts to ration health care based on price can be found in Germany and Japan. Due to the belt tightening based price rationing both countries experienced shortages of medications, reduced funding for research, and black market criminal activity, along with dissatisfied patients (Rottenberg ; Theroux, 1994, p. 2). Although there is a valid argument for rationed care, determination of what factor should be used to determine who gets what care is still up for debate. Under the solutions category of this paper quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) will be further defined and labeled as the best way to ration care. A method for calculating QALY will be explained and its validity defended. Current Impact on Healthcare Consumers and Institutions. Health care organizations around the world all rely on some form of rationing of care due to limited resources. Ultimately rationing limits access to healthcare. In the case of the United States, this is done through health coverage both government and private. Creating a universal coverage system will require a rationing system that is both ethical and cost effective. Its impacts can only be examined in theory based on review and comparing of the US to that of other countries’ such as Canada and Great Britain. Review of healthcare rationing in the United States. When comparing the United States’ current healthcare coverage system to those of other countries, the country does not measure up. Under the current system, health care costs in the US result in absorption of approximately one in six dollars of national spending (Singer, 2009). A poor economy along with increased healthcare costs have reduced the number of those with healthcare coverage. In 2012 the estimates indicate approximately 44. 6% of US citizens have health care coverage, a decline of 1. % from the prior year (Young, 2013). At present, the US spends 1. 5 times more than other countries around the world (Kane, 2012, para. 8) with 90% percent of Americans who believe the US healthcare system needs fundamental changes or a complete overhaul (Center for American Progress, 2007, p. 3). Great Britain. In Britain, all citizens have healthcare coverage, a sharp contrast to the United States. 76% of citizens in Great Britain approve of the current system (Singer, 2009) and 9. 6% of GDP is spent on their healthcare needs (Kane, 2012, table 2). The country uses the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) as a resource for determining the rationing of health care services. NICE is an independent organization that provides national guidance and standards on the promotion of good health and the prevention and treatment of ill health (NHS Choices, 2011, para. 3). The organization focuses on: * Public health * Health technologies * Clinical practice * Quality standards * Quality and outcomes framework Canada. Possible Solution. QALY is an opportunity as a measurement for a unbiased approach to organizing healthcare under an umbrella of unified understanding. As a proponent to rationing of healthcare, QALY offers an approach that focuses on the best quality of life compared to that of life extensions. For example, an individual who is 3o years of age has a life expectancy of 70 years compared to that of someone who is 85 years of age who has exceeded their life expectancy. It is cost beneficial to provide life -saving medicine to the individual who is at 30 opposed to the one who are 85 because there is a greater bang for the buck. In essence QALY is a measurement that can help determine the best way to use resources and allocate funds toward the best overall outcome. Unfortunately this decision can result in death for those of less dire circumstances or for those that are less likely to result in successful outcomes. Until American citizens decide on the emphasis of cost vs. life the matter will remain unresolved. Until then, healthcare remains in a grey area where they attempt to balance the value of life with the costs that are associate with maintaining life. References Andre, C. ; Velasquez, M. (2010). Aged-Based Health Care Rationing. Retrieved from http://www. scu. edu/ethics/publications/iie/v3n3/age. html Center for American Progress. (2007). Health Care by the Numbers: Ensure Affordable Coverage for All. Retrieved from http://www. americanprogress. org/issues/healthcare/news/2007/05/03/2962/health-care-by-the-numbers/ Definition of ’Rationing’. (2013). Retrieved from http://www. investop edia. com/terms/r/rationing. asp#axzz2Lp5M2H7u Kane, J. (2012). Health Costs: How the U. S. Compares With Other Countries. Retrieved from http://www. pbs. rg/newshour/rundown/2012/10/health-costs-how-the-us-compares-with-other-countries. html NHS Choices. (2011). Health watchdogs and authorities . Retrieved from http://www. nhs. uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/healthregulators/Pages/nice. aspx Pipes, S. C. (2008). Obama Will Ration Your Health Care. Retrieved from http://online. wsj. com/article/SB123060332638041525. html Rottenberg, S. , ; Theroux, D. J. (1994). Rationing Health Care: Price Controls Are Hazardous to Our Health . Retrieved from http://www. independent. org/publications/article. asp? id=1201 Singer, P. (2009). Why We Must Ration Health Care. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com/2009/07/19/magazine/19healthcare-t. html? pagewanted=all;_r=0 The National Coalition on Health Care. (2011). Health Care Spending as Percentage of GDP Reaches All-Time High. Retrieved from http://nchc. org/node/1171 Ukleja Center for Ethical Leadership. (2012). Rationing Health Care. Retrieved from www. csulb. edu/colleges/cba/ucel/modules/documents/rationing-health Young, J. (2013). Number of Uninsured in U. S. Rises as Workers Lose Jobs and Health Insurance. Retrieved from http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/02/14/number-of-uninsured-in-us_n_1276189. html

Two Lives Reflected essays

Two Lives Reflected essays Gluckel von Hameln or Glikl and Marie de LIncarnation lived mirror like lives in Women on the Margins: Three Seventeenth Century Lives by Natalie Zemon Davis. The two women were very devout in their religion. They were both well-educated women. They were both motivated women. They both broke the boundaries that women faced in the 17th Century. Glikl was a devout Jew. She married at the age of twelve as most of the Jews did unlike Christian women of the times that wed at 18. The two lived with each of their parents for a year after marriage. This was a typical custom of Jewish marriages in the 17th Century. They then moved out into a rented house and two servants. This was all that they were allowed to have. She married off her children in several different cities. This was a Jewish strategy of marrying children in cities that were far off and some that were close to home. The reasoning behind this was that there were insufficient Ashkenazim of the proper status to go around. They also took advantage of the Jewish law permitting first cousins to marry with one of their daughters. Marie de L'Incarnation was an Ursuline sister in Quebec. She was of the two women who founded the first Ursuline convent and school for girls in North America. Marie spent years insisting on Christian truth to people that her countrymen intruded upon. She would take on a pastoral role to the Buisson wagoners and stablemen. She would get them to admit their faults and failings while she presided over the dinner table, lecturing them on God and his commandments, rousing them if they had gone to bed without saying their prayers. Marie went to Canada to spread the word. She taught at a school in both Algonquian and Iroquoian languages. She would also go on flying missions to spread the word farther from the Quebec center of Catholicism. She wrote catechisms, prayers, dictionaries, and a big book of sacred h ...

Week 5 Project #2 Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Week 5 Project #2 - Research Proposal Example Malicious damage could be prevented through the utilisation of different security checks aimed at authenticating identities of individuals utilising the system. Passwords remain a common method utilised in identification of authorised individuals accessing an information system The system shall consist of a self assessment strategy aimed at ensuring multi-level security of the entire system. The approach adopted for the system shall occur at different layers of the system stack. The various layers shall include the following These applications are implemented to monitor malicious activities within an information system platform (Whitman & Mattord, 2009). Network behaviour analysis shall be utilised in the prevention of intrusion. This kind of prevention analyses network behaviour and identifies threats through monitoring unusual activities. Statistical anomaly based detection shall be employed in detecting threats occurring within the network. Information system audit is aimed at analysing the development strategy for the information system. The auditing process shall be undertaken by a professional IT organisation to ensure all aspects of the system are effectively checked. The working processes and practices must also be analysed as a way of improving the functioning of the system. Information assurance could be defined as the application of numerous methods of providing protection for information systems, like computer networks. In providing protection of computer systems there are five fundamental qualities which as system must sufficiently satisfy to ensure successful protection. The five qualities are as listed below Non-repudiation – this ensures that the system maintains a record of all activities undertaken. This works in ensuring that individuals remain responsible as their actions can be retraced within the system. This refers to the process of encoding information to ensure only

Discuss the strategic roles of middle managers Assignment

Discuss the strategic roles of middle managers - Assignment Example The paper will also discuss participation in strategy making from a middle level management perspective. Main body In their study, Currie and Proctor (2005) concur with the literature that argues that organizational performance is mainly influenced by what takes place in the middle of the organization than what happens at the top. Based on the work of Floyd and Wooldridge (1992, 1994, 1997, 2000), Currie and Proctor (2005) argue that middle managers have a significant role to play in the ‘thinking’ as well as ‘doing’ of strategy in the organization. The middle managers can actually influence the direction of strategy from top to bottom or bottom to top. According to Currie and Proctor (2005), middle managers play four significant roles in strategic decisions in the organization. First, they synthesise information about the operations of the organisation which can be channelled upwards to the executives and can be used in strategy formulation. Second, the mid dle managers can reshape the strategies formulated by the executives since they are closer to all activities that occur in the organization. Thirdly, the middle managers can also exert downward influence especially in areas that are outside the reach of the executives. The fourth point is that middle managers are responsible for implementing deliberate strategy where they translate corporate strategy into action plans. Thus, it can be noted that from the middle management perspective, the middle managers have important strategic roles to make in an organization. Without middle managers, it may be difficult to achieve consistency in the performance of the organization. Raes et al (2011, p. 102) also suggest that â€Å"the interaction of the top management team (TMT) and middle managers (MMs) is central to effective strategy formulation and implementation.† It can be argued that the middle managers are at the center of all activities in the organization. For instance, they dire ctly link with the top executives and the supervisors and other subordinates below them. This makes then significant in strategy formulation. They provide useful ideas to the executives which can be incorporated in the organization’s strategies and they also interpret these strategies to their subordinates. This makes them a bridging stone in the formulation and implementation of various strategies in the organization. The other important element is that the middle managers are directly responsible for the operations of the organization hence the reason why they are so important in strategic decision making and implementation in a particular organization. Wooldridge, Schmid & Floyd (2008) also concur with the notion that the middle managers are central to explaining key organizational outcomes from what they call a â€Å"middle management perspective.† There are several motivations have been described in the literature as the basis for a middle management perspective ( Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000, as cited in Wooldridge, Schmid & Floyd, 2008). The middle managers for instance play an intermediary role and they serve as important interfaces disconnected parties in the organizations. For instance, there is no direct interaction between the subordinates in the organization and the senior executives. However, the middle managers bridge this gap through top and down communication to these disconnected actors in the organization. Therefore, to a larger extent, it can be observed that the middle

Motivators For Tourist Trips To Different Destinations Essay

Motivators For Tourist Trips To Different Destinations - Essay Example Both outbound and inbound tourism have had a stable growth in tourists. The type and state of weather and climate are a major influence of tourist destinations. The state of the atmosphere in a given place at a particular time describes weather while climate is the prevailing condition of the atmosphere determined after a long period of surveillance(Avraham&Ketter, 2008).The travel and tourism industry has been a major contributor to the economy for a long period. Both outbound and inbound tourism have had a stable growth in tourists. The type and state of weather and climate are a major influence of tourist destinations. The state of the atmosphere in a given place at a particular time describes weather while climate is the prevailing condition of the atmosphere determined after a long period of surveillance(Avraham&Ketter, 2008).Climate is one of the elements of geography that constitute geographical space, contributing to the environmental conditions that encourage or hinder touri sm. People seek to settle in areas that offer the highest comfort and chances of existence in terms of climate. Following this fact, the climate is considered to delimit optimal zones for tourism both at a regional and global scale. For instance, the warm temperate zones are considered optimal for beach and sun tourism.Where tourism uses geographical space, it is because there is specific components which depending on how they are appreciated socially, can be exploited and subsequently assimilated into tourism as a good or service.

Health Problems in Pakistan

Health Problems in Pakistan At the time of the independence, Pakistan inherited a health care delivery system that was a heritage of grand British period. This system was in the shape of public health services and some curative services In Pakistan the planning and formulation of health policies is dealt by federal government and the provincial government has the responsibility to ensure the proper implementation of those policies. Government is investing its limited resources in the development of medical colleges and universities rather than investing in improving the quality of health care by training medical professional by introducing public health schools and technicians training institutions. In Pakistan there is shortage of nurses, skilled midwives and birth attendants, dentists and pharmacists. The impact of government negligence towards health care on people of Pakistan can be seen from latest incident of Punjab.In Punjab many people have died after consuming harmful cough syrup and life threatening medicines. There is poor health care status of women which is a major reason of the problem of maternal mortality. A vast majority of women in the country suffer from anaemia and malnutrition which is quite dangerous during pregnancy. In the context of general neglect for health in Pakistan, the mental health represents an area of even greater neglect. The effect of poor public health system can be seen from the ever increasing cases of diarrhea especially in children. Therefore as a child may be dying of diarrhea there is high probability that childs father may be suffering from cardio-vascular disorders. Rich section of society has the better access to health facilities as they have more many and can afford private hospitals but poor on the other hand has no access to basic health facilities. The Government should ensure quality in delivering health services. It should provide better incentives to health professionals and should focus on designing training institutes to ensure the proper health care system in Pakistan as a healthy nation can ensure better productivity and healthy economy. Introduction: Access to health facilities is the basic responsibility of every citizen but unfortunately the Government of Pakistan has failed to fulfill its commitment with health sector. Hypothesis: Poor Public health care has negative effects on the people of Pakistan Brief History of the Health Care System At the time of the independence, Pakistan inherited a health care delivery system that was a heritage of grand British period. This system was in the shape of public health services and some curative services. It was basically designed to prevent large scale epidemic and provide medicinal services for the population in large and medium sized towns, many of which were along the lines of communication or political or strategic consequences. (1947-1955) during initial phase, most important foremost problem was the replacement of staff. With the support of UNICEF, BCG vaccination campaign was launched and to add more, medical schools were opened in the West Pakistan. Phase known as Five Year Plan from 1955 onwards, developmental activities were affected in phases of five year. Throughout (1955-1960) 1st Five Year Plan six new medical colleges were made, one for women were opened in both wings, a nursing school was attached to each of these medical schools. Postgraduate institution was also established at the same time. Throughout (1960-1965), 2nd Five Year Plan over the recommendation of a Medical Reform Commission, to cover 50000 populations by Rural Health Center scheme, two Health Technicians Training institutes were open, a malaria eradication program and family planning program were launched. Throughout 3rd Five Year Plan (1965-1970) in addition to extension of the abovementioned initiatives, l Tuberculosis Control Program and Small Pox eradication programs were launched and the major infrastructure of the public health care system was set up in the 1970. Launched by the World Health Organization Pakistan endorsed the health for all by 2000 initiative. Throughout 4th Five Year Plan (1970-1975), share of medicines was largely increased for major hospitals, generic name drug system was introduced to cut down the prices of medicines, eight publicly owned fair price drug shops were opened, three new nursing schools ,six new medical colleges , and one public health school were opened. (1978-1983) The 5th Five Year Plan was planned for 1975-1980, but to cover the deficiencies and to make a more practical plan, the slight shift was made. Under Country Health Program (CHP), that aimed at improving planning and management of health services was done. Throughout 6th Five Year Plan (1983-1988), government launched rural development program that provided base for Health for all by the year 2000. Throughout 7th Five Year Plan (1988-1993), new facilities like (Basic Health Units and Rural Health Centers) were established, female medical technician school was made, and laboratory facilities with health facilities were provided. Health facilities were linked with trained paramedics and semi-skilled termed as community health workers. (1993-1998) In 8th Five Year Plan (1993-1998), HMIS (Health management information system), SAP (Social action program), and Prime Minister Program for Family Planning and Primary Health Care were launched. Throughout 9th Five Year Plan (1998-2003) , public private partnership and privatization of health facilities were the areas of programming, Decentralized Planning, Levying user charges for financing were made. In latest initiatives taken by government it has planned to create Programmatic and Organizational and Management Reforms. These are to promote elimination of poverty agenda of government, under health sector reforms, devolution has acquired immediate importance and major impetus is on district health system. The Health care Policy of Pakistan considers health sector investment as a part of governments Poverty Reduction Plan. It gives more importance to primary and secondary health services in comparison to tertiary level health services in the past. To achieve quality in health sector government is making little efforts to improve governance in health sector. Organizational structure of public health care system According to the constitution of Pakistan health care is mainly the responsibility of provincial governments, except in the territories administered by federal government. The planning and formulation of health policies is dealt by federal government and the provincial government has the responsibility to ensure the proper implementation of those policies. The responsibility of the implementation of some vertical programs on AIDS and malaria, and extended program of immunization rests largely with the federal Ministry of Health. Health care sector in Pakistan consist of private and public sector. The private sector serves nearly 70% of the population, is primarily a fee for service system and covers the range of health care provision from trained allopathic physicians to faith healers operating in the informal private sector. Neither private, nor non government sectors work within a regulatory framework and very little information is available regarding the extent of human, physical, and financial resources involved. The public sector consists of more than 10,000 health facilities ranging from Basic Health Units (BHUs) to tertiary referral canters. Currently Basic Health Unit covers around 10,000 people on the other hand the larger Rural Health Centers (RHCs) cover around 30000-450000 people. In Pakistan, Primary Health Care (PHC) units consist of both BHUs and RHCs. At sub district level the Tehsil Headquarters Hospital covers the population while the District Headquarters Hospital serves a district as its name suggests. At present there are 22 Health Systems Profile- Pakistan Regional Health Systems Observatory- EMRO 28 tertiary care facilities in Pakistan, which are mostly teaching institutions located in the major cities. According to a study less than 30 % of the population has the access to the facilities of the PHC units and on average every person visits a PHC facility less than once a year. The reasons for their underutilization, as recognized by both the managers and consumers, are the lack of health care professionals and specially women, high rates of absenteeism, poor quality of services and inconvenient location of PHC Units. There are many organizations like the Pakistan Army, railways, departments of local government and many other independent organizations that are providing healthcare facilities to their employees and those employees form a major portion of the population. In Pakistan the planning for health care system has three main parts which includes a formal planning which resolves around the production of 5-15 year long term plans, short-term plans (ADP) and annual recurrent budgets. The Federal Ministry of Planning and Development which is commonly known as the Planning Commission in Pakistan is mainly responsible for long term and strategic planning of health care system and the Provincial Health Departments and the Ministry Of Health design their plans in line with the overall policies of the Planning Commission. Development of appropriate plans requires the clear knowledge and understanding of heath related issues and the needs of the society and the knowledge of indicators of social development. Evaluation of needs for health care programmes in Pakistan is usually based on the size of the population in a particular area. Unfortunately the government does not take seriously the detailed needs of those areas. There are many flaws in the implementation of healthcare programs and there is discrimination as well on the basis of locality. In posh areas people have better health care facilities. Villages At present the public health sector generates insignificant amount of resources through token user charges. The key source of financing of the public sector in Pakistan is the government. Through Annual Development Plans (ADPs) capital investment in the public sector is financed. The Annual Development Plans (ADPs) include external funding derived from foreign aid (overseas funding) from both bilateral and multilateral organizations. It is the responsibility of federal government to finances the development budgets of provincial governments. The provinces are independent when it comes to the allocation of funds over different sectors. As far as the non development budgets of provincial governments are concerned then those budgets are funded by provincial government revenues though the Federal Government covers existing deficits through non essential grants. Even though public sector expenditure on health has remained less than 1% of GNP for a long time, per capita health expenditures have improved a great deal in last decades. The sum total of percentage of GNP that government spends on the healthcare in Pakistan ranges between 3 and 4 percent with 2-3 percent of GNP directed towards private healthcare. Human Resource condition in Pakistans health sector: There is a shortage of clear sustainable vision for human resource development and the federal MOH or provincial DOH does not have a unit, responsible for such an important health system function. There is gender discrimination in health sector. Females are given priority when it comes to nursing. We hardly see male nurses. Government is investing its limited resources in the development of medical colleges and universities rather than investing in improving the quality of health care by training medical professional by introducing public health schools and technicians training institutions. Even though there is a increasing interest to address the problems in human resource in medicine in Pakistan including shortage of nurses, skilled midwives and birth attendants, dentists and pharmacists the future planning for tackling these issues of medical health concerning health professionals and their abilities in the countries is still unclear and the government is still unable to pinpoint the major areas of problem. Recently the Government of Pakistan has started a new national program for the training of community midwives by actually investing on it. The program has been launched to address the issue of incompetent and untrained midwives which are pretty dangerous to health sector. The government has announced that the first batch of trained community midwives will be ready soon. . Many new nursing and midwifery schools have also been launched by government in some districts and provinces. There are some academic institutes that are providing post graduate training in nursing in order to relieve the disaster in nursing which is generated by limited production and external brain drain. In the framework of health system development, there is an alarming shortage of skilled and qualified healthcare experts like human resource planners in health sector, health information experts, heath care system managers and healthcare economists. The governments ability to train the staff members is pretty limited to non-existent in the country. Unfortunately government is unable to fully train the medical staff and is still playing with the life of people. As far as the pre-service training of health experts is concerned conventional methods are being followed and there is a difference between educational objectives which are highlighted on hospital based care instead of addressing the needs of the communities for primitive, defensive curative and rehabilitative services. Due to many institutional ad professional reasons like lack of interest from the PMDC the attempts to establish strong rules and approaches including COME (community oriented medical education) have not been successful in medical schools . Another reason of its failure is the weak department of public health in medical schools and lack of commitment of government and heads of medical institutes. The Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC) has the responsibility of registration, licensing and assessment of the medical and dental practitioners, curriculum review, evaluation and approval of educational institutions. It is also responsible for many other regulatory activities. It has proved to be inefficient in its working by issuing license to the incompetent dental and medical practitioners which are practicing in the health sector. The role and responsibility of PMDC is questioned by the Ministry of health as it is unable to perform its functions well. It is not fulfilling its commitment to the health sector. The ministry of health has so far not taken any corrective measures in this regard. It is just asking questions and not finding answers which should be its priority. There is no system of structured continuous professional development and there is no way by which a medical professional is held responsible for its incompetence. Although the PMDC has made some attempts but they have not been materialized yet. The attempts made by PMDC have not materialized yet. There is a shortage of public health and community direction in the programs of medical and nursing schools. Graduates of these schools are not well prepared to practice in a public health care atmosphere while these needs are most important. Some organizations and medical schools have recently started course in nursing like Aga Khan University Hospital has recently started a degree program in nursing but we all know that it operates in private sector not in public sector. In 1990 under the Family Health Projects to develop programs a network of 4 provincial and 60 district health development centers was established for in service training of staff. These centers have not been properly institutionalized beyond their project life and seem to fade out gradually. Homeopathic doctors and Yunani Hakims became almost non-existent under the regulation of private practitioners and different traditional categories of medical practices. Data on various categories of professionals are limited and fragmented. This situation is affected by the fact that registration is not up to date and in some cases professionals are practicing their work without being getting registered. However Pakistan is gifted with important training and research institutions and highly qualified professionals who can add in the design and implementation of a well expressed policy and strategies for human resource development. Young doctors Association- Punjab: The young doctors association in Punjab has been laying great pressure over government since last year to accept their demands. On 8th November 2012 the representatives of the Punjab government, including Adviser of the CM Salman Rafiq, chief secretary and health secretary they give surety to the YDA office-bearers that the CM would issue a notification about acceptance of demands within 48 hours, said YDA General Council Punjab Chairman Dr. Muhammad Haroon. He further said that the demands have been accepted by the government of the YDA regarding termination of an FIR drawn against four young doctors in the first week of July this year in Lahore during the young doctors strike that remained intact for 21 days. But the doctors are again showing their stubborn and non-professional attitude towards ailing humanity, as they are not continuing their duties by staying away from the government hospitals across the province of Punjab including Lahore. On Friday, the third day of protest they continued to press the government to immediately release all the arrested doctors and also pull out cases registered against them regarding Gujranwala incident (ÂÂ  Young doctors got beaten and injured the DHQ Hospital medical superintendent, senior doctors and journalists during their protestÂÂ  ). The young doctors have boycotted the out-patient departments, indoor departments and operation theatres as well as the OPDs. However emergencies are still functional, due to these patients are suffering. This time, not only patients but senior doctors, civil society and people from other walks of life are criticizing the young doctors for their wrong approach. They blamed the bureaucracy for playing politics with them and have asked the provincial government to stop harassing young doctors through registration of cases against them. Punjab Government decided to suspend and transfer young doctors: The Punjab government recently has released notifications regarding the suspension and transfer of many leaders of the Young Doctors Association (YDA). Healthcare facilities were restored in all government hospitals and the young doctors resumed their duties all over Punjab after the association gave a deadline of six days to the provincial government to accept their demands.ÂÂ  YDA doctors have warned the provincial government that they would go on strike again if their service structure is restored. Gujrawala incident has no justification where annoyed doctors over the arrest of the young doctors YDA leaders slammed into the office of Gujranwala District Headquarters Hospital medical superintendent and beat him up along with some journalists trying to cover the incident after that the YDA went on strike.ÂÂ   The Pakistan Medical Association and the Punjab government planned some strict measures against these young doctors and they had to give up for the doctors responsible for the manhandling of the MS and the strike was brought to an end. National Health Policy: Health policyÂÂ  can be defined as the decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specificÂÂ  health careÂÂ  goals within a society.According to theÂÂ  World Health Organization, an explicit health policy can achieve several things: it defines a vision for the future; it outlines priorities and the expected roles of different groups; and it builds consensus and informs people. National Health Policy Gillanis views: On 22nd April 2012 the former Prime Minister of Pakistan Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani said that the effective and sustained implementation of the National Health Policy 2010 would go a long way in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MGDs).The National Health Policy incorporates key priorities such as family planning, maternal and child health, workforce development and meeting the Millennium Development Goals by 2015, he said while speaking at the inauguration of the newly expanded and renovated Accident andÂÂ   Emergency Department of Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre (JPMC). The Governor Dr. Ishrat-ul- Ebad Khan, Chief Minister Syed Qaim Ali Shah, Parliamentarians, CMs Special Assistant Waqar Mehdi, Sindh Chief Secretary Abdus Subhan Memon were also present on that occasion. Yousuf Raza Gilani said that the National Health PolicyÂÂ  has been formulated on the basis ofÂÂ  recommendations by the Health Policy Task Force in consultation with all key stakeholders.ÂÂ  He further added that the health sector has traditionally beenÂÂ  a neglected area and it did not receive theÂÂ  attention it rightfully deserved. The vast vacuumÂÂ  existing between policy decision-making and operational levels impacted adversely upon the delivery of health related services.ÂÂ   The systematic flaws of our mixed health infrastructureÂÂ  resulted in wastage of resources, duplication of work and inability of health institutions responsible for spearheading the reform agenda.ÂÂ   The broader structural dimensions such as decentralization, efficiency, economical use of resources and mechanisms of social protection were also ignored, he remarked.ÂÂ  He said thatÂÂ  in 2008, he had ordered the establishment of a Health Policy Task Force to design institutional response to the problems of the health sector.ÂÂ   He announced an additional grant of Rs 55 million for the remaining work ofÂÂ   the on- going renovation and expansion project of JPMC for taking this immense project to a logical conclusion.ÂÂ   He said the abolition of the Concurrent List from the Constitution after the unanimous passage of the 18th Amendment and historic adoption of the National Finance Commission (NFC) Award has empowered the provinces politically, administratively and financially. Health and Education are now purely provincial subjects and it isÂÂ  for the provinces to rise to the occasion and make the differenceÂÂ  through innovative methods of implementation of policies.ÂÂ   I would like to urge the provinces to focus on building their capacity for effective delivery of health services at the grassroots level, Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani said.ÂÂ   Stating the Quaid-e-Azams message at Eid-ul-Azha on October 24, 1947 the Gillani read Let us mobilize all our resources in a systematic and organized way and tackle the grave issues that confront us with grim determination and discipline worthy of a great nation.ÂÂ   Talking about the demand of JPMC staff for maintaining the status of the hospital as an independent body under the federal government, he said that he will ask the Chairman Implementation Commission Senator Raza Rabbani to visit the federal hospitals and discuss the issues with the Chief Minister, Governor and the administration. He appreciated the efforts and services of Executive Director JPMC Tasneem Ahsan and incharge of Emergency Department Dr. Seemi Jamali for achieving the goal of making the best and biggest A E department in a public sector institution in this country.ÂÂ   He said the Hospital has lived up to the expectations of people by responding to the health-related challenges, which should be encouraging for the management and staff of the JPMC.ÂÂ   Of late, Karachi, the financial hub of Pakistan, has witnessed the recurring incidents of terrorism and terrible bomb blasts.ÂÂ   The Hospital and its staff have commendably responded to the challenge of tending to the injured and thus added a glowing chapter of dedicated service, he said. His final remarks were: The people of Karachi are rightfully proud of you. Health Service Delivery in Pakistan: The infrastructure of public health service delivery of Pakistan consist of 5000 basic health units, 600 rural health centres, 7500 other first-level care facilities and over 100 000 lady health workers which are providingÂÂ  basic health careÂÂ  services across the country. As far as secondary care hospitals are concerned then there are 989 hospitals, atÂÂ  tehsilÂÂ  and districtÂÂ  levels which are responsible for the referrals. The responsibility of provincial department of health has increases after the devolution plan in health. Extensive WHO support for capacity-building is required to ensure that the provincial health authorities canÂÂ  deliver at the expected level to improve health conditions,ÂÂ  especiallyÂÂ  for population groups with the least access to health. The role of lady health workers: Through the deployment of 110 000 lady health workers covering almost 60% to 65% of the target population the community involvement has become a major feature of the extension of health care services to rural areas and urban slums Government has established the lady health worker programme. The main goals of the program are enhancement of maternal, newbornÂÂ  and child health, provision of family planning services and the integration of other vertical health programmes. For independent Expanded Programme on Immunization vaccinations lady health workers have been trained in selected districts Without recognizing the importance of family planning component, increasing competencies and skills of lady health workers, increasing their knowledge about health issues, sustained logistics and more robust management oversight and support we cannot guarantee the proper performance and quality of such programs. In the context of devolution the long term commitment and honesty for better service deliveryÂÂ  and capacity building of theÂÂ  lady health workersÂÂ  is required. Basic health services package: The WHO has undertaken the responsibility of development and costing of the basic health services package in Pakistan. The goal of which was to implement consistent integratedÂÂ  chief health care in first-level care facilities. This goalÂÂ  was associated to the draft of national health policy (2010)ÂÂ  for national implementation connected to overall approval of the policy. The concept of basic health services package has been implemented in Punjab as minimum service delivery standards. Nevertheless, Government needs to determine theÂÂ  requirements for the implementation of the basic health services package, including a costing examination.ÂÂ  This may also be a supporter for development of the total funding distribution of health in Pakistan. Private health care: Through a network of private providers the private health care sector accounts for 70%-80% of health care delivery.ÂÂ  On the other hand deficiency of standards and quality of care at all levels of service delivery andÂÂ  the lack of regulation compromise health care delivery outcomes in this sector. Effects of poor public health system on the people of Pakistan: The lack of information is one factor that hinders the Poor peoples use of health services. Poor access to social networks, inadequate services, and inability to pay are some of the other factors. Due to poverty and lack of awareness the lower income group of the society is compelled adopt inappropriate health seeking behaviors such as selecting a low standard hospital, untrained health care provider, self medication or even the discontinuation of treatment because of their low salaries and shortage of money. These actions worsen the financial and health status of the patient, thus creating a vicious cycle.ÂÂ   To afford the treatment such as major surgeries patients are forced to take loans. They adopt ex-post strategies. These are strategies to deal with the financial consequences of ill health including the costs of healthcare and loss of wage and production due to illness. Some people sell productive assets. These strategies reduce the saving capacity of individuals. People are usually compelled to sell their properties, cars and other furniture to save the lives of their loved ones as the quality treatment is pretty expensive. If you want a good doctor then you will have to pay a fortune for it. Some effects of poor health care system in Pakistan on its nation are stated below: Life threatening Drugs: The impact of government negligence towards health care on people of Pakistan can be seen from latest incident of Punjab. In Punjab 36 people have died so far, 25 of these in Gujranwala, whereas many are apparently in a very sensitive condition due to the consumption of harmful cough syrup during the last few weeks in the most populous province Punjab. ÂÂ   According to Medical Superintendent of District Head Quarter Hospital Dr Anwar Amanullah, 21 persons were brought from different areas who had consumed the alleged toxic cough syrup and drugs excessively. Seventeen out of 21 died including the former Councilor of Nadi Pur Town, Chaudhry Irfan. ÂÂ   It was the second wave of deaths from apparent cough syrup abuse since just over a month ago when up to 19 people died in Lahore. ÂÂ   In spite of the deaths in Lahore being highlighted by the media, the syrup was being sold without prescription at medical stores across Punjab. After drinking the syrup, the men fell unconscious and were brought to hospital. Doctors referred some of them to Mayo Hospital in Lahore. ÂÂ   Relatives of some of those who died alleged that many medical store owners were selling the killer syrup without asking for prescriptions. Effect on women: Another effect of poor condition of health sector in Pakistan is on women. It is difficult to measure the number of women who die while giving birth in Pakistan. The maternal mortality in Pakistan is expected to be anywhere in the range of 190 to 1,700 deaths per 100,000 live births whereas a 1990 estimate gives the national maternal mortality rate as 340. The continuing tragedy of maternal deaths in Pakistan is brought home in the analysis by Prof. S. Jafarey and Kotejos study of the women who were brought dead to one of the premier health institutions in the country. The major reasons cited by the study were delay in seeking care due to socio-cultural factors and inadequate medical services at the first-care level. These women did not come from some hard to reach corner of Balochistan, but these women lost their lives right in Karachi, literally within a stones throw from some of the most sophisticated tertiary care hospitals in the country.ÂÂ   In Pakistan we can see that there is poor heath care status of women which is a major reason of the problem of maternal mortality. A vast majority of women in the country suffer from anaemia and malnutrition which is quite dangerous during pregnancy. Supplements are very expensive and the women of low income group are unable to afford it. Many women are unable to recognize never their full growth potential which puts them at high risk of obstetrics difficulties. Higher fertility rates, child birth at early ages and high parity and negligent care of high risk pregnancies multiply their risks of sickness and death. (S. Mahmud and A. Aslam, Maternal Mortality in Pakistan: Policy Strategy). In most of the cases these kind of women die while giving birth which sometimes results in the death of new born as well. Some of the women in developing countries like Pakistan are affected by injuries and disabilities during pregnancy and childbirth. Most of these injuries go unspoken and untreated. It becomes unbearable for the women to live with such injuries as they are painful, humiliating and permanent. This results in the long t

Pre-literacy and Modern Vestiges Essays -- Literature Epic Poetry Poem

Pre-literacy and Modern Vestiges For many years, the conventions and existence of epic poetry from the pre-literate age were explained as repositories for information. A well-known story, usually involving a hero that embodied the virtues of the society who told the story, engages in battles, quests, etc. As the epic is spoken to an audience, the hero’s actions and the way they are described impart the audience with information and teachings. The information the listeners received is thought by some to be analogous to a modern day textbook lesson, in which students learn mathematics, grammar, and law, all by the written word. So is the contention of Homeric scholar Eric A. Havelock. As Hobart and Schiffman state in Orality and the Problem of Memory, Everywhere he looked in Homer, Havelock saw a wealth of instruction. For instance, the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon at the beginning of the Iliad embodies for him a wide range of subliminal â€Å"teachings.† It lays out the rules for disposition of captives, the etiquette of making and receiving ransom requests, the reverence due to priests, the respect accorded to kings by powerful warriors, and the symbols of public authority†¦(19). Havelock believed the nature of the epic was to verbally hand down a type of classical social contract, so that society could remain stable based upon the information that the speaker’s gave audiences of the Iliad. Integral to the audience’s reception of these teachings was a willingness to become participatory in the communication of the epic. According to Havelock, this is not a choice, but a necessity for a pre-literate listener. Havelock contends that a pre-literate soci... ...ring a list of words and definitions. What is important in Hobart and Schiffman’s essay is the idea that the purpose of oral epics is radically different than what has been traditionally thought. Our modern concept of memory is a very personal experience, as is for the most part our learning styles. Books are intimate and stress the individual interpreter of them; their pages are filled with information that in the reader’s hands might be hundreds of years removed from the time they were written. Yet with spoken epics, the only way to experience them was in the flesh, listening in a group to the speaker. It was a nominally individual process, but did include information as a print culture knows it. In the present day, perhaps the immediacy of the performance nature of pre-literate work is overlooked when so many written words flash before our eyes on pages. Pre-literacy and Modern Vestiges Essays -- Literature Epic Poetry Poem Pre-literacy and Modern Vestiges For many years, the conventions and existence of epic poetry from the pre-literate age were explained as repositories for information. A well-known story, usually involving a hero that embodied the virtues of the society who told the story, engages in battles, quests, etc. As the epic is spoken to an audience, the hero’s actions and the way they are described impart the audience with information and teachings. The information the listeners received is thought by some to be analogous to a modern day textbook lesson, in which students learn mathematics, grammar, and law, all by the written word. So is the contention of Homeric scholar Eric A. Havelock. As Hobart and Schiffman state in Orality and the Problem of Memory, Everywhere he looked in Homer, Havelock saw a wealth of instruction. For instance, the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon at the beginning of the Iliad embodies for him a wide range of subliminal â€Å"teachings.† It lays out the rules for disposition of captives, the etiquette of making and receiving ransom requests, the reverence due to priests, the respect accorded to kings by powerful warriors, and the symbols of public authority†¦(19). Havelock believed the nature of the epic was to verbally hand down a type of classical social contract, so that society could remain stable based upon the information that the speaker’s gave audiences of the Iliad. Integral to the audience’s reception of these teachings was a willingness to become participatory in the communication of the epic. According to Havelock, this is not a choice, but a necessity for a pre-literate listener. Havelock contends that a pre-literate soci... ...ring a list of words and definitions. What is important in Hobart and Schiffman’s essay is the idea that the purpose of oral epics is radically different than what has been traditionally thought. Our modern concept of memory is a very personal experience, as is for the most part our learning styles. Books are intimate and stress the individual interpreter of them; their pages are filled with information that in the reader’s hands might be hundreds of years removed from the time they were written. Yet with spoken epics, the only way to experience them was in the flesh, listening in a group to the speaker. It was a nominally individual process, but did include information as a print culture knows it. In the present day, perhaps the immediacy of the performance nature of pre-literate work is overlooked when so many written words flash before our eyes on pages.